第一章What can we learn from the Nacirema?

In this introductory chapter, the lecturer will first lay out the aims and components of this course and then discuss the example of “Body Ritual among the Nacirema” to illustrate how language use plays a constructive role in our lives.

●1.1Introduction

This course concerns language and its importance for a deeper understanding of what are written in English newspaper articles. In this section, the lecturer will say something about course objectives and course modules.

●1.2"Body Ritual among the Nacirema"

“Body Ritual among the Nacirema” was an article written by Horace Miner and was published in American Anthropologist in 1956. In this section, the lecturer will take a look at this article and find out what the Nacirema are like and how they perform their body rituals.

●1.3From the Nacirema to the American

In fact, “Body Ritual among the Nacirema” is a parody of an anthropological report. What this article is really about is the daily life of the American in the 1950s. In this section, the lecturer will reread the descriptions of some body rituals and identify what they actually refer to.

●1.4The magic of language

Through creative language use, Horace Miner does an exceptional job in disguising modern American people as a primitive tribe in his 1956 article. Taking Miner’s article as an example, the lecturer will show how description is tied to evaluation and how different versions of people and events can be constructed to influence our opinions of them.

第二章What is social constructionism?

In this chapter, the lecturer will first talk about the fundamental idea of social constructionism as explained in Kenneth J. Gergen’s 2008 article “Social construction: revolution in the making”. She will then go on to outline some central assumptions of social constructionism based on Vivien Burr’s 1995 book An Introduction to Social Constructionism and Gergen’s article. Finally, she will discuss the implications of these ideas for English newspaper article reading.

●2.1The fundamental idea of social constructionism

Gergen’s 2008 article summarizes the fundamental idea of social constructionism as “Together we construct our worlds”. In this section, the lecturer will present Gergen’s elaboration of this idea.

●2.2Central assumptions of social constructionism

Social constructionism has at its foundation a group of key assumptions. In this section, the lecturer will talk about some of these assumptions as outlined in Burr (1995) and Gergen (2008).

●2.3Implications for English newspaper article reading

Traditionally, objectivity is regarded as an essential part of honest journalism. In this section, the lecturer will reexamine the notion of objectivity in journalism from the social constructionist perspective.

第三章Where did social constructionism come from?

Social constructionism has arisen from and is influenced by a variety of disciplines and intellectual traditions. In this chapter, the lecturer will discuss the historical origins of social constructionism.

●3.1Cultural backdrop: postmodernism

Postmodernism is the cultural “backcloth” against which social constructionism has taken shape. In this section, the lecturer will first say something about modernism, and in doing so to lay the way for a number of key features of postmodernism.

●3.2Objectivity: the crisis of value neutrality

Gergen (2008) describes three major lines of postmodern argument. In this section, the lecturer will present postmodernists’ first major argument: although seemingly neutral and objective, all authoritative accounts of the world contain implicit values.

●3.3Reason on the run: the literary assault

The second major line of postmodern argument points to the shortcomings of reason. Although reason has long been prized in Western culture, it is thrust into question by linguists and literary theorists such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Jacques Derrida. In this section, the lecturer will talk about Saussure’s theory of signs and language and Derrida’s idea of deconstruction.

●3.4Scientific knowledge as communal construction

While many people consider science to be the crowning jewel of Western civilization, the third major postmodern movement has challenged the very foundations of scientific knowledge and has illuminated the social basis of science. In this section, the lecturer will introduce several pivotal authors and their publications in the evolution of our understanding of science as social construction.

第四章Does language affect the way we think?

In Chapter 3, the lecturer talked about how Saussure’s theory of signs and language had contributed to the development of social constructionism. In this chapter, firstly, the lecturer will present the social constructionist view of language. Then she will give more details about Saussurean structuralism. Next she will explain poststructuralism in the context of language. Finally she will consider the implications of these views for English newspaper article reading.

●4.1The social constructionist view of language

Traditionally, people think of language as a bag of labels which they can choose from in trying to describe the world (including themselves). This way of understanding the relationship between language and the world is in radical opposition to a social constructionist view, which holds that people and things cannot pre-date language and that they are constructed through language.

●4.2Language and Saussurean structuralism

Saussure’s ideas on structure in language laid the foundation for much of the approach to and progress of the linguistic sciences in the 20th century. In this section, the lecturer will talk about the three important points that Saussure made about signs.

●4.3Language and poststructuralism

Fundamental to poststructuralism is the argument that the meanings carried by language are never fixed, always open to question, always contestible, and always temporary. In this section, the lecturer will focus on the commonalities and differences of poststructuralism and structuralism.

●4.4Implications for English newspaper article reading

In this section, the lecturer will discuss the implications of structuralism and poststructuralism for English newspaper article reading. The structuralist ideas allow us to say that the categories used in newspaper articles to characterize people and events are arbitrary, and the poststructuralist view of meaning suggests that newspaper articles are open to multiple readings.

第五章What is a discourse?

In Chapter 4, the lecturer presented the view that the way that language is structured provides us with the basis for our understanding of the world. One way of looking at how language is structured is the idea that language is structured into a number of discourses. In this chapter, firstly, the lecturer will define discourse. Then she will talk about the relationship between discourse and text. Next she will introduce the criteria for identifying discourses as suggested in Ian Parker’s 1992 book Discourse dynamics: Critical analysis for social and individual psychology. After that, she will say something about the way that discourse, social structure, and social practices are connected. Finally she will spend some time on the implications of these views for English newspaper article reading.

●5.1The definition of discourse

Discourse is a key concept in social constructionism. In this section, the lecturer will define discourse with an example, explain the role of discourse in social construction, and talk about the impact of discourse on social action.

●5.2Discourse and text

Discourse and text are inextricably intertwined. In this section, the lecturer will say something about the relationship between the two.

●5.3Criteria for identifying discourses

Discourses are not located inside particular people, but exist in a linguistic community. In this section, the lecturer will introduce the seven criteria for identifying discourses set out in Parker (1992).

●5.4Discourse, social structure, and social practices

Discourses have implications for what people can do and what they should do. In this section, the lecturer will outline how discourses are connected to the way that society is organized and run.

●5.5Implications for English newspaper article reading

The views introduced in the preceding sections of this chapter have important ramifications for English newspaper article reading. In this section, the lecturer will talk about the importance of examining discourses at work in newspaper articles.

第六章What does it mean to have power?

Discourses are embedded in power relations and have political effects. In this chapter, the lecturer will talk about Foucault's conception of power and its relation to discourse and ideology as discussed in Vivien Burr’s 1995 book An Introduction to Social Constructionism.

●6.1Foucault's conception of power

The relationship between discourse and power has received a great deal of attention from poststructuralist writers. One of the most influential figures is the French philosopher Michel Foucault. In this section, the lecturer will present Foucault’s theory of power.

●6.2Disciplinary power

Knowledges are very powerful. They manage the control of society and its members efficiently and without force, through what Foucault calls “disciplinary power”. In this section, the lecturer will talk about what Foucault means by “disciplinary power”.

●6.3The archaeology of knowledge

Historically, we can trace back the emergence of a discourse into a culture and try to uncover the social, physical, and economic changes that provided the breeding ground for it. Foucault’s “archaeology of knowledge” entailed this tracing back to uncover the conditions which allowed a certain discourse or knowledge to emerge.

●6.4The masked operation of power through discourse: an example

Although discourses serve purposes of social control, this process is not recognized by people as such. In this section, the lecturer will illustrate the masked operation of power through discourse with the “romantic love” example.

●6.5Ideology, power, and discourse

The concept of ideology is often used by social constructionists to talk about the way in which discourses obscure power relations. In this section, the lecturer will introduce four understandings of ideology.

●6.6Implications for English newspaper article reading

The views of discourse and power discussed in the preceding sections of this chapter have important implications for English newspaper article reading. In this section, the lecturer will reexamine some core principles of journalism in light of these views.

第七章How to do discourse analysis?

Discourse analysis can help us read and analyze newspaper articles critically. In this chapter, the lecturer will talk firstly of the definition of discourse analysis, and then go on to illustrate with examples the issues that discourse analysis addresses. Next she will draw attention to some guiding principles for discourse analysis. Then she will discuss the major components that discourse analysis includes. Finally, she will outline the stages in discourse analysis of newspaper articles.

●7.1Defining discourse analysis

Developments of discourse analysis have been happening concurrently in a number of different disciplines. Therefore, there are many definitions of discourse analysis in the literature. In this section, the lecturer will concentrate on Nelson Phillips and Cynthia Hardy’s definition of discourse analysis in their 2002 book Discourse Analysis: Investigating Processes of Social Construction.

●7.2Issues in discourse analysis: three illustrative examples

To illustrate the issues commonly addressed in discourse analysis, in this section the lecturer will talk about three examples discussed by Jonathan Potter and Margaret Wetherell in their 1987 book Discourse and Social Psychology. Beyond Attitudes and Behaviour.

●7.3Dos and don’ts of discourse analysis

Before proceeding to describe how discourse analysis is carried out, in this section the lecturer will outline some guiding principles for discourse analysis.

●7.4Major components of discourse analysis

Potter and Wetherell (1987) suggest that discourse analysis has three major components. In this section, the lecturer will take a look at each of these components in turn.

●7.5Stages in discourse analysis

In this section, firstly, the lecturer will illustrate the process of discourse analysis with an example in Burr (1995). Then, she will talk about the stages involved in discourse analyzing newspaper articles adapted from Potter and Wetherell (1987).

第八章How to discourse analyze newspaper articles: a demonstration

In this final chapter, the lecturer will demonstrate how to discourse analyze English newspaper articles using the method introduced in Chapter 7.

●8.1“'Covid-19 kills only old people.'Only?"

In this section, the lecturer will take a look at an article titled “‘Covid-19 kills only old people.’ Only?”. This article was written by Louise Aronson and was published in the New York Times on March 22, 2020.

●8.2Discourse analysis on "'Covid-19 kills only old people.' Only?"

In this section, the lecturer will show how to discourse analyze the article "'Covid-19 kills only old people.' Only?" following the stages introduced in Chapter 7.